Dyslexia is a common neurobiological learning disorder that is characterized by difficulty reading with accurate/fluent word recognition and spelling [1]. These difficulties, such as mispronouncing words, hesitant/punctuated speech disfluencies, difficulty reading new/unfamiliar words, and spelling errors, result from deficits in the phonological component of language (see Figure 1) [2]. Existing studies show that, in dyslexia, there is less activation in certain regions of the brain responsible for reading and rhyming tasks. Some studies find that dyslexic individuals have greater activation in some areas of the brain than non-dyslexic individuals to compensate for the weakness in brain areas that are typically involved in reading [3]. The diverse functions of these brain regions make it difficult to understand their exact role in dyslexia; however, it is likely that dyslexic individuals rely on different brain processes/pathways to read, as indicated by the over-activation of atypical brain regions.

Musical training has been widely known and accepted as a remediation and therapeutic tool for children with dyslexia as it helps to improve their ability to perceive sound, also known as temporal processing [4]. Past research shows that tapping the number of syllables in a word to a steady beat can improve spelling in dyslexic individuals. In one study, poor readers who received six months of musical training, specifically aimed at developing auditory, visual, and motor skills, performed significantly better on a standardized reading test than a similar group who received discussion training instead, which involved discussing certain topics [5]. Evidently, there is a strong relationship between musical discrimination abilities (tonal/melodic and rhythmic tasks) and language-related skills in dyslexia [6]. 

There are many different musical training methods used as therapeutic tools for dyslexic individuals, many of which are supported by literature. For example, the Cognitivo-Musical Training (CMT) method consists of musical tasks and exercises based on an auditory component, a motor component, and a cross-modal component (integrating auditory, visual, sensory, and motor modalities) [4]. For example, exercises combining both sensory and motor components included tapping the written notation of a rhythm or learning to play a small melody and correcting other children’s performance [4]. The way CMT can enhance the reading abilities of dyslexic individuals is through boosting their phonological awareness (sound structure of words), word segmentation, and working memory [7]. These are all deficits that dyslexic individuals have as a result of poor temporal processing, both in language and music [7].

There is also growing literature on the use of action video game (AVG) training as a remediation tool for dyslexic children to improve reading ability [8]. Not only is this a low-resource-demanding therapeutic tool, but it also reveals significant improvements in dyslexic children’s literacy skills [9]. AVGs have been linked to improving the function of specific brain networks that are implicated in spatial attention and reading. A recent 2021 study by Bertoni et al. was conducted on 14 dyslexic children to investigate whether AVG training compared to non-AVG training improved attentional control [10]. Participants played AVG and non-AVG on the commercial Wii for 80-minute sessions over nine days for each condition and were tested before and after the training [10]. Video games were classified as AVGs if they possessed the following characteristics: fast speed in terms of events and moving objects, a high degree of motor load, unpredictability in both sound and moving parts, and an emphasis on peripheral processing [10]. Testing consisted of a variety of reading tasks and visual search tasks [10]. Findings show that, after only 12 hours of AVG training, children who underwent AVG training performed better on tests, which was measured by their improved attentional control and phonological decoding (ability to sound out words to understand them) speed [10]. 

The literature supports musical training and AVGs as therapeutic tools in helping to improve literacy skills in dyslexic individuals. Musical training has consistently improved temporal processing, which is necessary for phonological awareness and word segmentation in reading. Furthermore, AVGs have been shown to improve attentional control among other neural networks involved in spatial attention and reading ability. Combining these practises (musical training and AVGs) may reveal even more improvements in working memory and, as a result, reading ability. Further studies would be beneficial and can potentially pave the way for more effective remediation tools/programs, therapy and early intervention programs, and educational tools for dyslexic individuals. 

References

1. Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1-14. 10.1007/s11881-003-0001-9
2. Shaywitz, S. E. (1998). Dyslexia. The New England Journal of Medicine, 338(5), 307-312.
3. Kearns, D. M., Hancock, R., Hoeft, F., Pugh, K. R., & Frost, S. J. (2019). The neurobiology of dyslexia. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 51(3), 175-188. 10.1177/0040059918820051
4. Habib, M., Lardy, C., Desiles, T., Commeiras, C., Chobert, J., & Besson, M. (2016). Music and Dyslexia: A New Musical Training Method to Improve Reading and Related Disorders. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 26.
5. Douglas, S., and Willatts, P. (1994). The relationship between musical ability and literacy skill. Journal of Research in Reading, 17, 99-107.
6. Forgeard, M., Schlaug, G., Norton, A., Rosam, C., Iyengar, U., & Winner, E. (2008). The relation between music and phonological processing in normal-reading children and children with dyslexia. Music Perception, 25(4), 383-390. 10.1525/mp.2008.25.4.383
7. Flaugnacco, E., Lopez, L., Terribili, C., Montico, M., Zoia, S., & Schön, D. (2015). Music training increases phonological awareness and reading skills developmental dyslexia: A randomized control trial. PLoS One, 10(9). 10.1371/journal.pone.0138715
8. Franceschini, S., Bertoni, S., Ronconi, L., Molteni, M., Gori, S., & Facoetti, A. (2015). “Shall we play a game?”: Improving reading through action video games in developmental dyslexia. Current Developmental Disorders Report, 2, 318-329. 10.1007/s40474-015-0064-4
9. Franceschini, S., Gori, S., Ruffino, M., Viola, S., Molteni, M., & Facoetti, A. (2013). Action video games make dyslexic children read better. Current Biology, 23(6), 462-466. 10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.044
10. Bertoni, S., Franceschini, S., Puccio, G., Mancarella, M., Gori, S., & Facoetti, A. (2021). Action video games enhance attentional control and phonological decoding in children with developmental dyslexia. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 171. 10.3390/brainsci11020171