The culinary, cultural and clinical significance of spices
Introduction
We tend to think of spices as powders that enhance our food; they have distinct aromas and can taste tangy, sweet or fruity. However, spices play a greater role in our health and society than we may think. Historically, spices were regarded as valuable items with versatile functions; they were used to preserve food, as remedies for illnesses, and were even exchanged among early civilizations during the Spice Trade. During the early period of the Spice Trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, ginger and turmeric were highly sought after. Those seeking to participate in the trade would travel more than 15,000 km along paths called The Spice Routes or Maritime Silk Roads$^{1}$. Furthermore, the ability to travel by sea enabled longer journeys and propelled the Spice Trade to grow into an intercontinental phenomenon$^{2}$.
Today, due to the advancement of medicine, the popularity of herbal remedies has decreased, leaving spices with a primary role in cuisine. However, their properties can still be applied to other uses, as some of the more fragrant herbs and spices, such as lavender and vanilla, have become prominent figures in the field of aromatherapy.
This article will regard spices as gems of culture, and highlight their pharmacological properties, such as their ability to induce psychoactive effects, and their potential function as prebiotics.
The Maluku Islands of Indonesia (“The Spice Islands”)
During the Spice Trade, many merchants in East Asia would set sail to visit the Maluku Islands, which were well-known for their abundance in spices like nutmeg and clove.
Nutmeg
http://theepicentre.com/spice/nutmeg/
Scientific name: Myristica fragrans
Origin: Indonesia
Active ingredients: Myristicin, Elemicin and Safrole
Some may associate nutmeg with baked goods like pies and gingerbreads, however, nutmeg can also complement potatoes, squash and dark meats. In addition, nutmeg is a characteristic flavour in several autumn and winter drinks, such as eggnog.
The active ingredients in nutmeg are called myristicin, elemicin and safrole.
Consuming as little as 5 to 15 grams of nutmeg can cause the consumer to experience palpitations, dizziness, anxiety and hallucinations$^{3}$. These symptoms can easily be treated in a day, provided that the patient is dealing with acute intoxication. However, long term misuse of nutmeg can cause effects analogous to that of Cannabis use$^{3}$.
Clove
Species Name: Syzygium aromaticum
Origin: Indonesia
Active Ingredients: Eugenol
Clove can be a very potent spice; only a small quantity is needed for the flavour to be incorporated in your dish. Clove has a very similar flavour profile to nutmeg, and you will often see the two paired in baked goods.
The essential oil extracted from cloves is highly concentrated with Eugenol. Though Eugenol is also found in other spices, such as nutmeg and cinnamon, the compound is classified as an irritant that induces hepatotoxicity (damage to the liver). It takes as little as 5mL for Eugenol to become toxic to its consumer$^{3}$. Aside from this, Eugenol has also been linked to sedative effects$^{3}$.
Ginger
Species Name: Zingiber officinale
Origin: Southeastern Asia
Active Ingredients: Gingerols and shogaols
While it is difficult to trace which country Ginger originated from, it is likely that it comes from Southeastern Asia, where it has been a feature in Indian and Chinese kitchens since ancient times$^{2}$.
The effects of ginger can vary significantly; while it can act as a sedative and promote sleep, it can also act as a stimulant and an aphrodisiac$^{3}$. These properties may be explained by the interaction of its components with neurotransmitter receptors. Research has suggested that 9 major components of ginger interact with the serotonin 5-HT1A receptor, thereby decreasing anxiety$^{3}$. Furthermore, ginger has also been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and can be used to treat nausea and vomiting$^{4}$.
The Malabar Coast, India
Black Pepper
Species Name: Piper nigrum
Origin: Malabar Coast, India
Active Ingredients: Piperine
Although black pepper is a common spice in kitchens all over the world, it actually originated in India. Some may refer to it as the “King of Spices” for its high demand during the Spice Trade. The active ingredient in black pepper, piperine, has been found to elevate levels of serotonin and endorphins in the brain$^{3}$. Additionally, black pepper has been found to interact with aminobutyric acid A receptors, which suggests its potential for treatment of insomnia, epilepsy and anxiety disorders$^{3}$.
Cinnamon
Species Name: Cinnamomum aromaticum (Cassia) and Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Ceylon)
Origin: Sri Lanka
Active Ingredients: Eugenol, coumarin
When I hear the word cinnamon, the first thing that comes to mind is a warm, fluffy cinnamon roll fresh from the oven. What most people don’t know is that there are actually two types of cinnamon; Cassia and Ceylon. These two types differ in aroma and chemical composition. While Cassia is noted to be more spicy and tarty, Ceylon’s scent is similar to that of flowers. Chemically, they differ in that Cassia contains coumarin and Ceylon contains eugenol.
Coumarin is often used by pharmaceuticals as a building block for the production of synthetic anticoagulants like coumadin$^{3}$. In addition to being valuable for anticoagulant properties, a study on animal models suggests that cinnamon extract may help prevent Alzheimer’s disease$^{3}$.
Vanilla
Scientific Name: Vanilla planifolia Origin: Mexico Active Ingredients: Vanillin and piperonal
Vanilla is probably one of the most common spices; we use it to flavour pastries, ice cream and we even imitate its scent for lotions and perfumes. The active ingredient in vanilla is piperonal, which is sometimes also referred to as heliotropin. This ingredient is thought to decrease feelings of stress and make us happier. Due to this, vanilla can be used for aromatherapy and regular use may demonstrate an antidepressant effect.
Fennel
Scientific Name: Foeniculum vulgare
Origin: Southern Mediterranean region
Active Ingredients: Anethole
Many spices contain volatile oils that can be separated and gathered by steam distillation. These volatile oils are more commonly called essential oils. The essential oil of fennel has the potential to cause damage to the brain and nervous system, as it is considered neurotoxic and epileptogenic$^{3}$. In addition, the essential oil interacts with fluoroquinolone antibiotics, and thus should not be consumed alongside it$^{3}$.
Antimicrobial and Prebiotic Effects of Spices
Of the spices discussed in the article, black pepper, cinnamon and ginger were shown to promote the growth of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp., while inhibiting species of Ruminococcus bacteria$^{5}$. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are two genera of bacteria that live in the human gastrointestinal tract. While bacteria generally receive a bad reputation in the news, many species of bacteria are not harmful, and even play key roles in digestion. In fact, researchers have noted a correlation between low levels of Bifidobacterium and diseases such as E.coli infection in overweight children, and long-term asthma$^{5}$.
Summary
References
[1] What are the Spice Routes? (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/what-are-spice-routes
[2] Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, May 15). Spice trade. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/spice-trade
[3] Bourgeois, J. OD, MD; Parthasarathi, U., MBBS; Hategan, A., MD. (2014). Taking the spice route: Psychoactive properties of culinary spices. Current Psychiatry. 13(4), p.21-32.
[4] Malhotra, S. and Singh, A. (2003). Medicinal properties of Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Natural Product Radiance. 2(6), p.296-301.
[5] Lu, Qing-Yi et al. (2017). Prebiotic Potential and Chemical Composition of Seven Culinary Spice Extracts. Journal of Food Science. 82(8), p. 1807-1813. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13792
[6] Belitz, H. D., Grosch, W., & Schieberle, P. (2009). Food chemistry. Food Chemistry (pp. 1–1070). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-69934-7
Diana is currently in her 3rd year of undergraduate studies at York University. She is pursuing an international bachelor of science in biomedical sciences, a program she believes reflects her two greatest passions: science and languages. She is a firm-believer that as long as you are curious and love to learn, you are a scientist at heart! In her free time, she loves learning languages, cooking, baking and playing with her pet bunny!
