Just how important is vitamin A for our bodies? Most people do not pay attention to whether vitamin A, of all vitamins and minerals, are abundant in their diets. This is because foods fortified with vitamin A such as leafy greens, orange and yellow vegetables, eggs, milk, and fish are readily available and abundant in developed nations (Figure 1). The same cannot be said for developing countries.

Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a life-threatening issue and is a leading cause of childhood blindness in many third world countries. VAD disproportionately affects children with about 250,000 to 500,000 children becoming blind every year [1]. Half of these children die within 12 months of losing their vision [1]. VAD is a serious problem that has been addressed in a multitude of ways, from biofortification (e.g., vitamin A enriched carrots) to supplement programs (i.e., access to vitamin pills).

Golden Rice has been introduced as a possible solution to VAD in developing countries. Golden Rice is genetically modified rice that has been engineered to produce beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A (also known as provitamin A) (Figure 2) [2]. The idea is that the beta-carotene would metabolize in the human body and produce vitamin A. There are many in support of Golden Rice; however, it is met with just as much opposition. Some argue that this biofortified crop is key to ending VAD, while others argue it poses a great risk to human health and the environment.

There are many benefits to Golden Rice. It has been proposed as a cost-efficient and effective solution to combat VAD for various reasons. It has the potential to alleviate micronutrient (vitamins and minerals needed by the body) deficiencies and decrease death rates that stem from VAD. Moreover, it is estimated that about 25% of the world’s population is micronutrient deficient [3]. It is alarming how many cases of preventable vision loss and death occur in developing countries. This is, in part, because white rice is a staple food in many areas of the world where diversity in the diet is limited; however, white rice has no micronutrient value. Golden Rice comes at no higher cost to the farmer and consumer, yet it provides micronutrient value and has the potential to save millions of lives [4]. When used in combination with other intervention programs, Golden Rice has the potential to prevent disease and lifelong disability.

Moreover, the technology associated with Golden Rice is provided free of charge to developing countries; therefore, growing and harvesting Golden Rice should not cost any more than white rice [5]. This is because the Golden Rice project can operate under humanitarian use, meaning it is exempt from being manufactured at high costs and can be provided to third world nations for free.

Through a variety of research studies and trials, Golden Rice has been proven to be safe for consumption. A study performed in the Philippines analyzed various components of Golden Rice and non-GMO rice, including fiber, minerals, and vitamins [6]. Researchers found no significant differences between the two types of rice, besides the levels of beta-carotene in Golden Rice, meaning Golden Rice is not in any way harmful or different from conventional rice [6]. In fact, the levels of provitamin A measured in Golden Rice contributed to 113% of the estimated average requirement of vitamin A for preschool children in Bangladesh and the Philippines [6].

Despite its potential benefits, Golden Rice has risks too. It has been criticized for its environmental risks, specifically cross-contamination (Figure 3). The spread, or cross, of genes from genetically modified to conventional crops, has been a concern since cross-contamination is difficult to eradicate and rice is generally known to cross pollinate. The spread of genetically modified genes from Golden Rice may contaminate wild varieties of rice, which can potentially create unwanted herbicide/pesticide resistance and/or affect beneficial insects that prey on rice pests [7]. There have already been instances of rice contamination in China and the United States (U.S.) that created problems with export [7].

Another issue with Golden Rice is that the levels of beta-carotene are too low to have any reasonable effect and, therefore, negate the entire purpose of the product. In 2018, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration revealed that the levels of beta-carotene in Golden Rice were too low, ranging from 0.5-2.35 µg of beta-carotene per gram (µg/g) [8]. In comparison, a fresh, non-GMO carrot contains beta-carotene levels between 13.8-49.3 µg/g and spinach would have approximately 111 µg/g. The recommended intake is between 30 and 300 mg for an adult and 30 to 150 mg for children. Ultimately, this means that an individual would have to consume 3.75 kilograms of Golden Rice to receive an adequate amount of beta-carotene in a day, which is unrealistic.

In addition to Golden Rice having low levels of beta-carotene, the beta-carotene also degrades fairly quickly in storage. A study conducted in 2017 found that Golden Rice retained only 60% of its original beta-carotene levels after three weeks of storage, and just 13% after 10 weeks (Figure 4) [9]. This is due to the instability of the beta-carotene in the presence of oxygen. Unless the rice is stored in vacuum-sealed packaging, the beta-carotene will rapidly degrade. In developing countries, unique vacuum-sealed storage is likely not feasible. In this regard, the expected outcomes of Golden Rice in helping to alleviate VAD will be hindered.

It is imperative we use all the tools and technology at our disposal to prevent premature deaths and blindness among millions of people around the world, especially among children. Golden Rice is more of an addition, not a replacement, to the current initiatives put in place to help those who are micronutrient deficient in developing countries. Advancements within agricultural technology and biotechnology are welcomed by some and opposed by others. Nevertheless, it is clear that they can increase the quality of life of many individuals around the world and provide solutions to existing world problems, such as VAD. It is important to conduct further research and stay educated on such practices to make the best decisions going forward in the fight against world hunger and nutrient deficiency.

References

1. World Health Organization. (2009). Vitamin A Deficiency. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/data/nutrition/nlis/info/vitamin-a-deficiency
2. Zimmermann, R. & Qaim, M. (2004). Potential health benefits of Golden Rice: a Philippine case study. Food Policy, 22(2), 147-168. http://t.goldenrice.org/PDFs/Philippines_GR_Food_Policy_2004.pdf
3. Bailey, R. L., West Jr., K. P., & Black, R. E. (2015). The epidemiology of micronutrient deficiencies. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 66(2), 22-33. https://asset-pdf.scinapse.io/prod/1768775693/1768775693.pdf
4. Dubock, A. (2019). Golden Rice: To combat vitamin A deficiency for public health. IntechOpen, A. https://www.goldenrice.org/PDFs/Golden%20Rice%20to%20combat%20VAD%20for%20Public%20Health%20-%20Dubock%202019.pdf
5. NYU Grossman School of Medicine. (n.d.). Genetically modified organisms: The Golden Rice debate. Retrieved from https://med.nyu.edu/departments-institutes/population-health/divisions-sections-centers/medical-ethics/education/high-school-bioethics-project/learning-scenarios/gmos-the-golden-rice-debate
6. Swamy, B. P. M., et al. (2019). Composition analysis of genetically engineered GR2E ‘Golden Rice’ in comparison to that of conventional rice. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 67(28), 7986-7994. http://t.goldenrice.org/PDFs/Swamy_2019.pdf
7. Greenpeace. (2013). Golden illusion: The broken promises of ‘Golden Rice’. Retrieved from https://www.greenpeace.org/static/planet4-international-stateless/2013/10/08786be5-458-golden-illusion-ge-goldenrice.pdf
8. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2018). Re: Biotechnology Notification File No. BNF 000158. Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov/media/113719/download
9. Schaub, P., Wust, F., Koschmieder, J., Yu, Q., Virk, P., Tohme, J., & Beyer, P. (2017). Nonenzymatic B-carotene degradation in provitamin A-biofortified crop plants. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 65, 6588-6598. https://gefree.org.nz/assets/pdf/2017-carotene-degradation.pdf